Our assessments, publications and research spread knowledge, spark enquiry and aid understanding around the world. Proto-Celtic, or Common Celtic, is the ancestral proto-language of all known Celtic languages, and a descendant of Proto-Indo-European.It is not attested in writing but has been partly reconstructed through the comparative method.Proto-Celtic is generally thought to have been spoken between 1300 and 800 BC, after which it began to split into different languages. Betawi The article discusses a number of cases in which Proto-Indo-European word-initial sequences of the type *Hi- and *Hu- yield an acute vowel in Baltic and in Slavic. Kangean Sundanese Goidelic. TocharianB The assumed period of language contact could then be later and perhaps continue well into the first millennium BC. (OldMarathi) The stem vowel in the t-preterite was leveled to *e if the next consonant was either velar or *m, and *i in front of *r or *l.[20], One major formation of the future in Celtic, the s-future. Okinawan The meaning of PROTO- is first in time. Cebuano Austroasiatic It is claimed that the morpheme in question, reconstructed here as *-is < *-io-os, evolved in, ABSTRACT De origine scoticae linguae (DOSL, also known as OMulconrys Glossary) is an etymological glossary dating from around the late-seventh or early-eighth century. [2][3] Matasovi, however, is confused at how the -o- in *uo- became -a- in Gaulish and Brythonic. Whereas Continental Celtic offers plenty of evidence for phonology (the sound system), its records are too scanty to help Read More 1500 entries. (Shanghainese, Contents 1 Proto-Celtic 1.1 Etymology 1.2 Noun 1.2.1 Inflection 1.2.2 Alternative reconstructions 1.2.3 Descendants 1.3 References Proto-Celtic [ edit] *mori 'body of water, sea' (neuter) (Gaulish Mori- ~ Old Irish muir ~ Welsh mr), E.g. In historical linguistics, Italo-Celtic is a hypothetical grouping of the Italic and Celtic branches of the Indo-European language family on the basis of features shared by these two branches and no others. Omissions? The following personal pronouns in Celtic can be reconstructed as follows:[14]:220221[15]:281, The following third-person pronouns in Proto-Celtic may also be reconstructed. Belenus. Austronesian However, Schumacher[4] and Schrijver[5] suggest a date for Proto-Celtic as early as the 13th century BC, the time of the Canegrate culture, in northwest Italy, and the Urnfield culture in Central Europe, implying that the divergence may have already started in the Bronze Age.[why?]. That hypothesis fell out of favour after it was re-examined by Calvert Watkins in 1966. PIE *p is lost in PC, apparently going through the stages * (possibly a stage *[p])[10] and *h (perhaps seen in the name Hercynia if this is of Celtic origin) before being completely lost word-initially and between vowels. *lm 'hand' (feminine) (Old Irish lm; Welsh llaw, Cornish leuv, Old Breton lom), E.g. The Leiden University has compiled etymological dictionaries of various IE languages, a project supervised by Alexander Lubotsky and which includes a Proto-Celtic dictionary by Ranko Matasovi. Hmong Guaran Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). *bitus 'world, existence' (masculine) (Gaulish Bitu- ~ Old Irish bith ~ Welsh byd ~ Breton bed), Before the *-s of the nominative singular, a velar consonant was fricated to *-x: *rg- "king" > *rxs. [23], The thematic deponent second-person singular imperative ending was *-eso. Celtic Lexicon - University of Wales Tibeto-Burman (Nepal)) au-3 (aue); u- - proto_roots.en-academic.com [6] The changes are roughly in chronological order, with changes that operate on the outcome of earlier ones appearing later in the list. A Celtic Encyclopedia Primitive Irish - Wikipedia Capture a web page as it appears now for use as a trusted citation in the future. Gan, As Watkins (1966) puts it, "the community of - in Italic and Celtic is attributable to early contact, rather than to an original unity". This is a Swadesh list of words in Proto-Celtic, compared with definitions in English.. Proto-Germanic Celtic Dictionary. The principal lemmata are alphabetically arranged words reconstructed for Proto-Celtic. They are usually considered to be innovations, likely to have developed after the breakup of the Proto-Indo-European language. PIE *sp- became Old Irish s (lenited f-, exactly as for PIE *sw-) and Brythonic f; while Schrijver 1995, p.348 argues there was an intermediate stage *s- (in which * remained an independent phoneme until after Proto-Insular Celtic had diverged into Goidelic and Brythonic), McCone 1996, pp. 1500 entries. The traditional interpretation of the data is that both sub-groups of the Indo-European language family are generally more closely related to each other than to the other Indo-European languages. Proto-Celtic English *-agno- descendant, child *go-mro- warlike *agos- (Ir. What is commonly accepted is that the shared features may usefully be thought of as Italo-Celtic forms, as they are certainly shared by the two families and are almost certainly not coincidental. Temiar Words with an asterisk are . [1] However, Schrijver believes that in Brythonic, sequences of *wo regularly split into *wa and *wo depending on whether the *w was lenited; in this case, the vowel in the Brythonic descendants would be generalized from the lenited form. Addenda et Corrigenda to "Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic Epenthetic *i is inserted after syllabic liquids when followed by a plosive: Epenthetic *a is inserted before the remaining syllabic resonants: All remaining nonsyllabic laryngeals are lost. Algonquian and Iroquoian Early New) ashes *loutwi-ask (*ged-) ask (*erk-, rek-) ask *l-je/o-ask *beg-e/o-, *bex-ske/o- (??) Italian A friend asked me to look into the origins of the saying An acorn doesn't fall far from the tree. Hittite Palatovelars merge into the plain velars: Epenthetic *a is inserted after a syllabic, following a vowel in syllables before the accent (VHC > VC), between plosives in non-initial syllables (CHC > CC), Two adjacent dentals become two adjacent sibilants (TT > ss). In Gaulish and the Brittonic languages, the Proto-Indo-European *k phoneme becomes a new *p sound. Burushaski Traditionally derived from PIE *belH- ('white, shining . Asturian- This dictionary is based on structured data extracted on 2023-03-03 from the enwiktionary dump dated 2023-03-01 using wiktextract.. Proto-Celtic is generally thought to have been spoken between 1300 and 800 BC, after which it began to split into different languages. (OldPolish) The most common alternative interpretation is that the proximity of Proto-Celtic and Proto-Italic over a long period could have encouraged the parallel development of what were already quite separate languages, as areal features within a Sprachbund. Wutunhua Sequences of velar and *w merge into the labiovelars (it is uncertain if this preceded or followed the next change; that is, whether gw > b or gw > g, but Schumacher 2004 argues on p.372 that this change came first; moreover, it is also found in Proto-Italic, and thus arguably belongs to the previous section): Aspirated stops lose their aspiration and merge with the voiced stops (except that this. Bad luck? LOL - English Vocabulary - English - The Free Dictionary Abinomn Purepecha NigerCongo Cognate with Latin margo (border, edge), Proto-Germanic *mark (border, region), Avestan (marza, frontier). Proto-Celtic is currently being reconstructed through the comparative method by relying on later Celtic languages. Hypothetical grouping of the Italic and Celtic language families, Michael Weiss, Italo-Celtica: Linguistic and Cultural Points of Contact between Italic and Celtic in, "Revisiting the classification of Gallo-Italic: a dialectometric approach", "NUEVA INSCRIPCIN LUSITANA PROCEDENTE DE PORTALEGRE", "Indo-European and Computational Cladistics", Italo-Celtic Origins and Prehistoric Development of the Irish Language, "17. Paleosiberian Indo-Aryan: ), *ag-l- (W) buck *agro-, *agr- slaughter *agro-k battlehound *agro-magos- battle . Basque Cypriot, Hakka, Uto-Aztecan, Esperanto He then used the fraction of agreeing cognates between any two related languages to compute their divergence time by some (still debated) algorithms. Celtic languages | History, Features, Origin, Map, & Facts Sanskrit How to use proto- in a sentence. Lingwa de Planeta (Lidepla) Ido Scholars who believe that Proto-Italo-Celtic was an identifiable historical language estimate that it was spoken in the 3rd or 2nd millennium BCE somewhere in South-Central Europe. Northern Kurdish Irish Wiktionary data extraction errors and warnings Another future formation, attested only in Gaulish, is the -sye-desiderative. Likewise, final *-d devoiced to *-t-: *druwid- "druid" > *druwits.[13]. Contents 1 Proto-Celtic 1.1 Etymology 1.2 Noun 1.2.1 Declension 1.2.2 Descendants 1.3 References Proto-Celtic [ edit] Etymology [ edit] How to learn the Proto Celtic language - Quora A collection of Celtic cognates, with definitions, pronunciation, etymologies - includes the modern Celtic languages, older versions of these languages, such as Middle Welsh, Old Irish, and their extinct and reconstructed relatives and ancestors, including Gaulish, Celtiberian, Proto-Brythonic and Proto-Celtic. Ancillary study: Sound Change, the Italo-Celtic Linguistic Unity, and the Italian Homeland of Celtic", "Laryngeal Realism and early Insular Celtic orthography", "Old Irish cuire, its congeners, and the ending of the 2nd sg. This page was last edited on 16 January 2023, at 05:09. 1200900 BC. Celtic languages, also spelled Keltic, branch of the Indo-European language family, spoken throughout much of Western Europe in Roman and pre-Roman times and currently known chiefly in the British Isles and in the Brittany peninsula of northwestern France. (Middle, (Old French) on the Internet. Gelao Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic | Brill This number is, 0. Italian Finnic There is controversy about the causes of these similarities. This page was last edited on 4 March 2023, at 06:08. github.com Japanese 1500 entries. It contains a reconstructed lexicon of Proto-Celtic with ca. Want to add New Dictionary? (Cal)- See More Copyright Year: 2009 Hardback Availability: Published ISBN: 978-90-04-17336-1 Publication date: Slovak (, Plosives become *x before a different plosive or *s (CC > xC, Cs > xs), The reduplicated suffixless preterite (originating from the PIE reduplicated stative), This page was last edited on 4 March 2023, at 23:21. 1 March 2023. (Neapolitan, These changes are shared by several other Indo-European branches. It is not attested in writing but has been partly reconstructed through the comparative method. Proto-West Germanic, Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary, https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=Appendix:Proto-Celtic_Swadesh_list&oldid=62506573, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. In Celtic languages: Common Celtic The reconstruction of Common Celtic (or Proto-Celtic)the parent language that yielded the various tongues of Continental Celtic and Insular Celticis of necessity very tentative. A Celtic Encyclopedia. Cornish Dictionary. English-Celtic Dictionary Online and Free English-Celtic Translation. These cases were nominative, vocative, accusative, dative, genitive, ablative, locative and instrumental. Gujarati Makasar Bikol Central [16]:62[14]:220. Hawaiian The Sound of the Proto-Celtic language (Numbers, Words & Story) Etymological dictionary of proto-Celtic Author: Ranko Matasovi Summary: "This is the first etymological dictionary of Proto-Celtic to be published after a hundred years, synthesizing the work of several generations of Celtic scholars. gcse.src = 'https://cse.google.com/cse.js?cx=' + cx; Assamese The following consonants have been reconstructed for Proto-Celtic (PC): PC stops allophonically manifest similarly to those in English. That could imply that they are descended from a common ancestor, Proto-Italo-Celtic, which can be partly reconstructed by the comparative method. Similar developments appear in Italic, but for the syllabic nasals *m, *n, the result is Proto-Italic *m, *n (> Latin em ~ im, en ~ in). Punjabi PDF ProtoCeltic - English WordList - University of Wales *slis 'sight, view, eye' (feminine) (Brittonic sulis ~ Old Irish sil), E.g. Celtic words for fence, hurdle, lattice and related things come from the same root: more details, as do words for left and related things. The. Tamil The reconstruction of Common Celtic (or Proto-Celtic)the parent language that yielded the various tongues of Continental Celtic and Insular Celticis of necessity very tentative. Semantic Scholar is a free, AI-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the Allen Institute for AI. Etymological dictionary of proto-Celtic | WorldCat.org Siouan and Pawnee They were used to form the present, future, and subjunctive conjugations.[14]. Early and Modern Irish, Scots Gaelic, Manx, Welsh, Cornish, Breton, Old British, Pictish, Gaulish, Celtiberian and Galatian). Dictionary entries. (VulgarLatin)- Ossetian Ojibwe *dug, Indogermanisches etymologisches Wrterbuch, "The Origin of the Welsh Englyn and Kindred Metres", Celto-Germanic Later Prehistory and Post-Proto-Indo-European vocabulary in the North and West, "17. Proto-Celtic language - Wikipedia 1500 entries. Galician Walloon Telugu Your current browser may not support copying via this button. Category:Proto-Celtic names: Proto-Celtic terms that are used to refer to specific individuals or groups. Musi Thai Israel's Exodus In Transdisciplinary Perspective: Text, Archaeology Bashkir Icelandic DenYeniseian Albanian As such, the term (s) in this entry are not directly attested, but are hypothesized to have existed based on comparative evidence. Garo Next to consonants, PC * underwent different changes: the clusters *s and *t became *xs and *xt respectively already in PC. "colui che crea lodi"), la cui radice PIE *gerH- (originariamente "alzare la voce", poi "approvare, magnificare") riscontrabile anche nel latino grtus (e Proto-Celtic Xiang) Proto-Indo-European var gcse = document.createElement('script'); Slovene Sicilian) The -the in Old Irish is secondary. Proto-Basque Hungarian AntilleanCreole Il termine, trovato al plurale anche nel greco brdoi, sicuramente pi antico e proviene dal proto-celtico *bardos, a sua volta esito del proto-indoeuropeo *grdh--s ( lett. Tajik Entries where "Proto-Celtic" occurs: march: Translations smallage - see smallage Anagrams charm march (Welsh) Origin & history From Proto . Brittonic. There are *o-stems, *-stems, *i-stems, *u-stems, dental stems, velar stems, nasal stems, *r-stems and *s-stems. It contains a reconstructed lexicon of Proto-Celtic with ca. Italo-Celtic - Wikipedia Breton Uploaded by To be able to compare languages from different cultures, he based his lists on meanings he presumed would be available in as many cultures as possible. This page was last edited on 10 May 2021, at 23:31. Category:Proto-Celtic lemmas: Proto-Celtic lemmas, categorized by their part of speech. It had both athematic and thematic conjugations in the present tense. The -ase- variant originated in roots that ended in a laryngeal in Proto-Indo-European; when the *-se- suffix was attached right after a laryngeal, the laryngeal regularly vocalized into *-a-. Japonic It refers to the idea that people inevitably share traits with or resemble . E-Book Collections Title Lists and MARC Records, Latest Financial Press Releases and Reports, Terms and Conditions |Privacy Statement | Cookie Settings |Accessibility | Legal Notice. These endings are:[19]:6267, The Old Irish t-preterite was traditionally assumed to be a divergent evolution from the s-preterite, but that derivation was challenged by Jay Jasanoff, who alleges that they were instead imperfects of Narten presents. In this paper, we defend the thesis that the set of absolute, There are around sixty Indo-European roots that are (sometimes) reconstructed with a vowel *a in the scholarly literature that otherwise fully embraces the laryngeal theory. It contains a reconstructed lexicon of Proto-Celtic with ca. Standard, Tagalog The Gaulish conversion of *wo to ua is regular. *e before a resonant and *a (but not *) becomes *a as well (eRa > aRa): *elH-ro > *gelaro > *galaro / *grH-no > *gerano > *garano (Joseph's rule). Javanese Irish EMPIRES OF THE ATLANTIC WORLD EMPIRES OF THE ATLANTIC WORLD Britain and Spain in America 1492-1830 J. H. Elliott Yale University Press New Haven and London This category has the following 13 subcategories, out of 13 total. Indo-Iranian Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic - Google Books Most verbs took one subjunctive suffix in Proto-Celtic, -(a)s-, followed by the thematic primary endings. Etruscan rather unambiguous despite appeals to archaic retentions or morphological leveling. (Similarly, Grimm's law did not apply to *p, t, k after *s in Germanic, and the same exception occurred again in the High German consonant shift.). Yiddish Tatar The genders were masculine, feminine and neuter; the numbers were singular, plural and dual. Dutch Finnish This is the first etymological dictionary of Proto-Celtic to be published after a hundred years, synthesizing the work of several generations of Celtic scholars. Hindi (function() { Proto-Celtic language | Britannica We argue that most IE fox-words go back to two distinct PIE stems: *hlp-e- fox and, By clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our. (Old, W Belyn. Wiktionary Advertisement Find Similar Words Find similar words to proto-celtic using the buttons below. It contains a reconstructed lexicon of Proto-Celtic with ca. This is the first etymological dictionary of Proto-Celtic to be published after a hundred years, synthesizing the work of several generations of Celtic scholars. on July 14, 2017, This is a cleaned version of the original file found on The Internet, There are no reviews yet. From Proto-Indo-European *mor- (frontier, border). Proto-Slavic Elamite Presentation [] For further information, including the full final version of the list, read the Wikipedia article: Swadesh list. Proto-Celtic is usually dated to the Late Bronze Age, ca. Voiceless stop phonemes /t k/ were aspirated word-initially except when preceded by /s/, hence aspirate allophones [t k]. Indonesian Penutian "Italo-Celtic Correspondences in Verb Formation". Bangala This is the main category of the Proto-Celtic language. The principal lemmata are alphabetically arranged words reconstructed for Proto-Celtic. Rusyn UpperSorbian The following monophthongs are reconstructed: The following diphthongs have also been reconstructed: The morphological (structure) of nouns and adjectives demonstrates no arresting alterations from the parent language. Insofar as this new /p/ fills the gap in the phoneme inventory which was left by the disappearance of the equivalent stop in PIE, we may think of this as a chain shift. Zulu, Afroasiatic Proto-Turkic Romance TokPisin PDF English - ProtoCeltic WordList - University of Wales var s = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; Q-Celtic languages may also have /p/ in loan words, though in early borrowings from Welsh into Primitive Irish, /k/ was used by sound substitution due to a lack of a /p/ phoneme at the time: Gaelic pg "kiss" was a later borrowing (from the second word of the Latin phrase osculum pacis "kiss of peace") at a stage where p was borrowed directly as p, without substituting c. The PC vowel system is highly comparable to that reconstructed for PIE by Antoine Meillet. Friulian This page is a part of the kaikki.org machine-readable Irish dictionary. Serbo-Croatian Though Continental Celtic presents much substantiation for Proto-Celtic phonology, and some for its morphology, recorded material is too scanty to allow a secure reconstruction of syntax, though some complete sentences are recorded in the Continental Gaulish and Celtiberian. OldChinese, Jizhao- [4], Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary, Indogermanisches etymologisches Wrterbuch, https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/uostos&oldid=71568684, Proto-Celtic terms derived from Proto-Indo-European, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Welsh Hausa Tibeto-Burman, I can only find a few examples of this saying online, but lots of examples of the apple never falls far from the tree and similar sayings. The Celtic languages are the languages descended from Proto-Celtic, or "Common Celtic", a branch of the greater Indo-European language family. Turkic Latin Chumashan and Hokan [9] More recently, Schrijver (2016) has argued that Celtic arose in the Italian Peninsula as the first branch of Italo-Celtic to split off, with areal affinities to Venetic and Sabellian, and identified Proto-Celtic archaeologically with the Canegrate culture of the Late Bronze Age of Italy (c. 13001100 BC).[10]. A number of other similarities continue to be pointed out and debated.[13]. Greek Schrijver supposes that its athematic present was used clause-initially and the thematic conjugation was used when that was not the case.[28]. SiberianTatar Etymological Dictionary of Proto-celtic: 9 (Leiden Indo - Amazon (AncientGreek) Nynorsk) (Sinitic, It contains a reconstructed. The Celtic languages are the languages descended from Proto-Celtic, or "Common Celtic", a branch of the greater Indo-European language family. Ancillary study: Sound Change, the Italo-Celtic Linguistic Unity, and the Italian Homeland of Celtic", "Early Celtic among the Indo-European dialects", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Italo-Celtic&oldid=1132194659, Short description is different from Wikidata, Articles containing Sanskrit-language text, Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0. the assimilation of *p to a following *k. Polish One change shows non-exact parallels in Italic: vocalization of syllabic resonants next to laryngeals depending on the environment. Wyandot Proto-Japanese Nouns fall into nine or so declensions, depending on stem. Ukrainian It is also known as Common Brittonic, and was spoken from about the 6th century BC to the 6th century AD in most of Great Britain south of the Firth of Forth. English-Cornish Online Dictionary. 188K subscribers Like 57K views 2 years ago This video was made for educational purposes only. This Proto-Celtic entry contains reconstructed terms and roots. We unlock the potential of millions of people worldwide. Berber: gcse.async = true; Guinea-BissauCreole Proto- Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster Arabic Starting in 1950 with 165 meanings, his list grew to 215 in 1952, which was so expansive that many languages lacked native vocabulary for some terms. Verbs were formed by adding suffixes to a verbal stem. "Ranko Matasovis Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic (henceforth EDPC), is a welcome and very useful tool for linguistic investigationwe are extremely grateful to Ranko Matasovi for his remarkable achievement." Frisian Latvian Many types of trees found in the Celtic nations are considered to be sacred, whether as symbols, or due to medicinal properties, or because they are seen as the abode of particular nature spirits.Historically and in folklore, the respect given to trees varies in different parts of the Celtic world. [10][11], This allophony may be reconstructed to PC from the following evidence:[10][11]. Cantonese, Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary, Category:Requests concerning Proto-Celtic, Given names from Proto-Celtic by language, https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Proto-Celtic_language&oldid=70848475, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. s.parentNode.insertBefore(gcse, s); Volapk, Proto-Austronesian Marathi Appendix:Proto-Celtic Swadesh list - Wiktionary Vietnamese Dalmatian Possibly, post-consonantal laryngeals are lost when before pre-tonic close vowels: Possibly, vocalization of laryngeals to * between a *CR cluster and consonantal *j (CRHjV > CRjV), Syllabic laryngeals become *a (CHC > CaC), Syllabic resonants before a voiced unaspirated stop become *Ra (RD > RaD). web pages LowSaxon Proto-Celtic is believed to have had nouns in three genders, three numbers and five to eight cases. The voiced aspirate labiovelar *g did not merge with *g, though: plain *g became PC *b, while aspirated *g became *g. Proto-Indo-Iranian Thus, Gaulish petuar[ios], Welsh pedwar "four", but Old Irish cethair and Latin quattuor. 4445 finds it more economical to believe that *sp- remained unchanged in PC, that is, the change *p to * did not happen when *s preceded. Proto-Indo-European (PIE) voiced aspirate stops *b, *d, *g/, merge with *b, *d, *g/ in PC. In: This page was last edited on 7 January 2023, at 18:40. Lojban Bardo - Wikipedia Pashto In historical linguistics, Italo-Celtic is a hypothetical grouping of the Italic and Celtic branches of the Indo-European language family on the basis of features shared by these two branches and no others. Due to a planned power outage on Friday, 1/14, between 8am-1pm PST, some services may be impacted. German A reformulated list was published posthumously in 1971. Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/mrogis - Wiktionary Long vowels are shortened before a syllable-final resonant (V:RC > VRC); this also shortens long diphthongs. English Proto-Celtic as far as ? Proto-Balto-Slavic The principal lemmata are alphabetically arranged words reconstructed for Proto-Celtic. Paginator2 Falling Apples - Omniglot Blog Berber [citation needed] It can be inferred from Gaulish and Celtiberian as well as Insular Celtic that the Proto-Celtic verb had at least three moods: A probable optative mood also features in Gaulish (tixsintor) and an infinitive (with a characteristic ending -unei) in Celtiberian.[17][18]. Malagasy })(); (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); Cornish Dictionary South American [5] Nevertheless, some scholars, such as Frederik Kortlandt, continued to be interested in the theory. Faroese It was a descendant of the subjunctive of an Indo-European sigmatic thematic formation *-seti. Thus, H can disappear in weak cases while being retained in strong cases, e.g. And unaspirated voiced stops /b d / were devoiced to [p t k] word-initially. Estonian Tungusic Afrikaans Whereas Continental Celtic offers plenty of evidence for phonology (the sound system), its records are too scanty to help. The later belief in a stay of the Israelites at Tanis/Zoan was inspired by the transfer of archaeological . European proto industrialization introductory handbook | European Oto-Manguean Lingala Nepali Be the first one to, Advanced embedding details, examples, and help, Terms of Service (last updated 12/31/2014).